"La masonería está por encima de las religiones y de los partidos políticos”. Pero ¿hasta donde sigue existiendo enemistad entre la Iglesia católica y la masonería? En una publicación masónica peruana (2008) Eduardo Seleson afirma lo siguiente: “Hace unos años, el ilustre profesor y licenciado Alfonso Sierra Partida intentó publicar en los periódicos de la ciudad de México D.F. una copia del acta de iniciación en una logia de París donde se deja asentado que el profano Giovanni Montini (Pablo VI) habían sido elevados el mismo día para ser iniciados en los Augustos Misterios de la Francmasonería”. Y prosigue: “Pier Carpi, serio investigador periodístico y en un tiempo fuerte detractor de todo tipo de sociedades iniciáticas o secretas, es, paradójicamente, quien habría de encontrar en el transcurso de sus pesquisas las pruebas documentales de la iniciación masónica en Turquía de Angelo Roncalli (papa Juan XXIII)”. Los detalles de esta historia pueden consultarse en la obra Las profecías de Juan XXIII (Ed. Martínez Roca), de Pier Carpi. Carpi fue miembro de la logia P2 y amigo de su lider, Lucio Gelli, su deus ex machina, sobre el cual escribió un libro exculpatorio.

En la galería sobre la portada de la basílica de San Marcos en Venecia hay cuatro grandes esculturas de equinos conocidas popularmente como los Caballos de San Marcos. Estas esculturas son más antiguas que la propia basílica, pues proceden del hipódromo de Constantinopla.

Formaban parte de un monumento escultórico que representaba una cuadriga completa, similar a las que adornaban otros edificios antiguos como por ejemplo el Mausoleo de Halicarnaso. No se sabe exactamente dónde estaba situada esta cuadriga originalmente, pero se cree que debió coronar un arco de triunfo u otro edificio público.

Tampoco hay consenso en la fecha de su creación. Algunos expertos opinan que pueden ser obra de un escultor griego del siglo IV a.C. No obstante, otros tienden a datarlos entre los siglos I y III d.C.

Los caballos en la fachada de la basílica | foto Maria Schnitzmeier en Wikimedia Commons

En el Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai, un texto bizantino de finales del siglo VIII a principios del IX d.C. que comenta los monumentos existentes en Constantinopla en esa época, se habla de cuatro caballos dorados que presiden el hipódromo y se añade que vinieron de la isla de Quios en tiempos de Teodosio II.

Según algunas hipótesis podrían proceder de los arcos de triunfo de Nerón o Trajano en Roma, o incluso del mausoleo de Adriano. Las obras de restauración llevadas a cabo entre 1977 y 1981 no revelaron ningún elemento que pueda conducir a una datación precisa.

Vista lateral de los cuatro caballos | foto Aleister Crowley en Wikimedia Commons

Lo que sí se sabe es que durante siglos estuvieron en el hipódromo de la capital bizantina, donde los encontraron los cruzados en el año 1204 cuando asaltaron Constantinopla durante la Cuarta Cruzada. El principal contingente cruzado eran 10.000 soldados venecianos bajo el mando del dux Enrico Dandolo, y entre el botín enviado a Venecia se encontraban los caballos.

Para poder transportarlos con facilidad en las galeras venecianas tuvieron que cortar las estatuas a la altura del cuello, por lo que, una vez llegados a Venecia se volvieron a unir añadiendo un collar a cada uno, a modo de banda decorativa, para ocultar los cortes.

Las esculturas están hechas con un bronce cuyo contenido en estaño es muy bajo. Normalmente el bronce antiguo suele tener un 85 por ciento de cobre, un 10 por ciento de estaño y una pequeña cantidad de plomo e impurezas. Los caballos tienen casi un 98 por ciento de cobre, y solo un 1 por ciento de estaño y otro 1 por ciento de plomo, una técnica especialmente extendida durante el Imperio Romano.

Las esculturas originales, hoy expuestas en el museo de la catedral de San Marcos | foto Tteske en Wikimedia Commons

Tienen 2,33 metros de altura por 2,53 metros de largo y pesan 900 kilogramos cada una. La superficie de los caballos se doró con mercurio y luego se rayó en estrías paralelas de anchura constante con un cincel, para matizar el efecto dorado al reflejar el sol. En los cascos y cabestros hay grabados números romanos cuya función se desconoce.

Unos 50 años después de ser enviados a Venecia por Dandolo (que murió en 1205 y está enterrado en el interior de la basílica de Santa Sofía de Constantinopla, hoy Estambul) los caballos se instalaron sobre la galería de la basílica de San Marcos.

Grabado que muestra el traslado de los caballos a Francia en 1797 | foto dominio público en Wikimedia Commons

Pero no terminaría ahí su historia. Cinco siglos más tarde, en 1797 Napoleón derrotó a la República de Venecia y los franceses se llevaron de ella todo lo que pudieron: obras de arte, joyas, armaduras…

El tesoro veneciano fue fundido, así como el de San Marcos, el Bucintoro fue desmantelado para extraer el oro de las decoraciones, y unas 30.000 obras de arte de todas las épocas se vendieron o desaparecieron. Entre las obras que se enviaron a Francia estaban el león de San Marcos y los cuatro caballos dorados.

Napoleón mandó primero colocarlos en los Inválidos, luego en las puertas de las Tullerías y más tarde, en 1806, ordenó la construcción del Arco de Triunfo del Carrusel para conmemorar sus victorias, y que estuviera coronado por una cuadriga de bronce tirada por los cuatro caballos de San Marcos.

El Arco de Triunfo del Carrusel en París está coronado con una réplica de los caballos de San Marcos | foto Thesupermat en Wikimedia Commons

Así, las esculturas permanecieron en París hasta que finalmente tanto el león como los caballos fueron devueltos a Venecia en 1815 por el emperador austríaco tras la derrota de Napoleón en Waterloo, aunque la estatua del león se rompió al ser retirada de la explanada de los Inválidos. Los caballos que hoy coronan el Arco de Triunfo parisino son réplicas de los originales.

Por segunda vez, volvieron a ser colocados en la galería de la basílica de San Marcos, donde estuvieron permanentemente hasta 1981, con solo dos excepciones: durante la Primera Guerra Mundial los caballos junto con otros tesoros del norte de Italia fueron llevados a Roma para protegerlos y, temporalmente, se almacenaron en el Castillo de Sant’Angelo.

Una curiosa coincidencia si tenemos en cuenta que una de las hipótesis sobre su origen afirma que proceden del mausoleo de Adriano, que no es otro que el actual Castillo de Sant’Angelo. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial se guardaron en el monasterio de Praglia, cerca de Padua.

Maqueta del Mausoleo de Adriano en Roma (hoy Castillo de Sant’Angelo) coronado por una cuadriga de bronce | foto Jean-Pierre Dalbéra en Wikimedia Commons

Debido al deterioro por la contaminación se decidió sustituirlos por réplicas, que son las que hoy pueden verse presidiendo la famosa plaza veneciana. Los auténticos se guardan en el interior de la basílica, donde están expuestos al público en el museo de la catedral. Son los únicos elementos de una cuadriga de bronce de época clásica que han llegado hasta la actualidad.

Fuentes

Luce-Marie Albigés, Présence des chevaux de Venise à Paris, de 1798 à 1815 | Tom Rosenblatt, The arrangement of the Tetrarchs and Quadriga | Charles Freeman, The Horses of St. Mark’s: A Story of Triumph in Byzantium, Paris, and Venice | Basilica di San Marco (Web Oficial) | Wikipedia

Castel Sant’Angelo

With more than a million visitors each year, Castel Sant’Angelo (also known as Mole Adriana) is one of the main landmarks in Rome. Surrounded by massive walls, the central structure has a peculiar circular shape, which stand 48 meters above the ground. The site has undergone an incredible number of changes and structural alterations: from monumental burial site to fortress, from horrific prison to splendid private residence, from military headquarters to world famous museum.

This very special castle, just a stroll away from the Vatican, doesn’t have the gloomy and grim looks of the Medieval fortresses, but, as we will see, its mighty walls, halls decorated with frescoes and grids of passages, do hide more than one secret. A visit to this site, is not just a travel back in time, but an exciting travel through time, from 2000 years ago, up to the present day.

A Mausoleum for the Emperor Hadrian

The story begins around 130 A.D. when the emperor Hadrian, who wasn’t only greatly fascinated by art and philosophy, but highly regarded the spiritual world, decided to build a monument that would have served as the burial site for him, his family and his successors. As inspiration, he used the mausoleum of Augustus. The monument had a square plant, and was built with precious marbles and decorated with statues. At the top, it was surmounted by a huge shiny bronze statue of Hadrian riding a quadriga (a four-horse chariot).

The mausoleum was located in the suburbs of the city, on the other side of the Tiber river banks, where the Forum and the other important buildings stood. For this reason, a bridge was built to connect the site to the rest of the city. The construction works took some years, and were only completed by the successor of Hadrian, Antonino Pio, in 139 AD. Hadrian was finally buried here, together with his beloved wife Sabine. Among the emperors that were laid to rest here, there are Antonino Pio, Commodo, Marcus Aurelius and Caracalla, together with most of their wives and sons.

Hadrian's dream became reality, and the emperors, which were adored as deities after their death, would have had a proper burial. But, when reading the verses that Hadrian dedicated to his own soul, and engraved on a plaque in the imperial urns hall, we discover a much more intimate dimension to his feelings and fears about his inevitable passing away.

“Animula vagula blandula, Hospes comesque corporis, Quae nunc abibis? In Loca, Pallidula rigida nudula, nec ut soles dabis Iocos.” "Little soul, you charming little wanderer, my body’s guest and partner, where are you off to now? Somewhere without color, savage and bare; You’ll crack no more of your jokes once you’re there.” (Hadrian)

The Fortress, the Vatican and the Passetto

In 400 AD, the emperor Onorio decided to convert the castle into a fortress, to protect the city from the increasing raids of the Barbarians. The structure was incorporated into the Aurelian walls and fitted with turrets and bastions.

During the siege of the Vandals, the Romans finished all the ammunition, and started to throw to their opponents any heavy object they could find, included many statues dating back to Hadrian’s times. One of those, the Faunus Barberini, was found many years later lying in the river Tiber. It was restored and sold to a German prince of Bavaria by the Barberini family, who were in financial hardship. The statue, considered one of the masterpieces of Hellenistic art, is still in Germany.

After the fall of the Empire, the castle was quarreled among many local prominent families, often linked with the power of the papacy. In 1277, pope Niccolò III built the Passetto del Borgo (in Roman dialect, Er Coridore): an elevated passageway on the bastions, connecting the Apostolic Palace to the castle. It has been used at least twice by the popes, to flee to safety during attacks to the city. Today, it is possible to visit the Passetto during the day, while in the summer you can also book a stunning nighttime visit from 8 pm onward, but only on specific days.

The popes have always used the castle as a shelter in case of battles or armed clashes. In the late Middle Ages, the central building was partially adapted as a papal residency, as it was considered safer than the Vatican apartments. Among the artists who enriched the halls of the castle with frescoes, is the famous Pinturicchio. Almost every pope has made some sort of renovation to the castle, adapting it to its personal needs and taste. During the Renaissance, the pope built the pentagonal outer walls still surrounding the castle today.

When it was a Prison

The castle wasn’t just a fortress, contented by many for the control over the city, but it was a place of detention for a great number of notable prisoners. There were basically two categories of cells: the obscure and dark ones obtained by adapting the ancient rooms of the basement, and some in the upper levels, usually assigned to high-status prisoners. Some of those prisons are open to visitors.

One of the most infamous cells was called San Marocco (or Sammalò). Originally, this cell was one of the air ducts of the ancient central room where the Imperial funeral urns were kept. Basically, it was a deep, dark hole with no windows, where the prisoner was lowered, and it was so narrow and low that he had no chance of standing or lying down.

During the centuries, among the people that were forced to spend some time locked up in the castle, there were more than one high rank clergymen, sometimes betrayed and killed by opponents, or even by other members of their own family.

The Count of Cagliostro, an obscure and self-proclaimed alchemist, but also famous scammer, was captured while hiding in an hotel on the Spanish Steps, and sentenced to life imprisonment. He spent the first three years of detention here.

In 1600, Giordano Bruno, accused of heresy, underwent, in the castle’s halls, the trial that condemned him to be burned at the stake in the square of Campo de’ Fiori (not far from Piazza Navona) where a statue of the philosopher still commemorates the event. Even the famous sculptor Benvenuto Cellini, the creator of art masterpieces, spent about one year in those cells.

But one of the creepiest events was the imprisonment of the young noblewoman Beatrice Cenci, who was accused of killing her abusing father and beheaded in 1599, at the age of 22. The execution stirred deep emotion among the population, who were against the pope’s decision, and her unfair execution made her a popular heroine, and symbol of the excessive power of the Vatican. The ghost of Beatrice is believed to appear every year, on September the 11th, walking back and forward on the bridge in front of the castle, holding her severed head in one hand. If you’d like to know more about the darkest secrets of Rome, you can have a look at our Ghost Walk Tour page.

The French Army Siege and the End of the Papal State

When you walk into the castle, you’ll soon realize that there is a particular focus on old armaments, which are well represented both in the outside spaces and in the museum halls of the complex. During the Napoleonic era, the castle was occupied by the French army. Then, in 1849, the newly proclaimed Republic of Rome was besieged and then, again, occupied by the French. They took possession of the Sant’Angelo Castle, and, after extensively bombing the town center, returned the command of the city to the pope. This only lasted until the Italian army arrived to Rome in 1870, defeating the French and Swiss armies protecting the pope, and annexing Rome to the Italian Republic. The Italian army took control of the castle, and the government installed military headquarters there.

The Legend (and Ups and Downs) of the Angel

At the top of the castle, you’ll see a bronze statue of the Archangel Michael, who is “responsible” for the permanent name change of the monument, that was once a pagan tribute to the Roman emperors. However, the statue you see today was not the first one to sit at the top of Castel Sant’Angelo, but, actually, the sixth in line!

In the year 590 AD, during some of the darkest times of the city, a terrible plague struck the citizens. Pope Gregory organized a solemn procession to beg God to put an end to that nightmare. When crossing the bridge in front of the castle, the pope had a vision of the Archangel Michael in the act of sheathing his sword. This was interpreted as a sign that the plague would have soon come to an end.

To celebrate the event, the pope ordered a wooden statue of the angel be built, and this was the first one that sat at the top of the monument. When the statue was completely ruined by wear, it was replaced with a marble one, which was destroyed during a siege, in 1379. The third angel (again, made of marble, with bronze wings) was hit by a lightning strike. The fourth one, made of bronze covered in gold, was fused to make cannons. The fifth in line is a marble statue with bronze wings. Even this one was replaced, and now it’s located inside the castle’s courtyard.

So, after this troubled story, who is the angel which surmounts the castle today? It’s a bronze statue made in 1753 by a Flemish artist called Peter Anton von Vershaffelt. This angel was restored about 30 years ago, hoping it will have better luck than the previous ones!

The Castle Today

The site is now a museum, and features different itineraries:

The outer walls, fortifications, passages and prisons.
The basement with the visible ruins of the ancient Hadrian’s mausoleum.
The papal apartments and halls.
A vast collection of statues, paintings, artifacts, and a large armory featuring weapons and ancient armors.
The terrace of the angel, where you’ll enjoy one of the most stunning views of the capital. Get your camera ready!

A visit to this site is fun and entertaining for the whole family. Under request, there is also an elevator available. You can visit the castle with a guide or on your own. It is recommended to book your tickets online.

Castel Sant'Angelo: Fast Track & Guided Tour

Enjoy a guided tour of Castel Sant’Angelo without having to wait in the long queue. This monument was previously the mausoleum of Emperor Hadrian, a Papal fortress and also a prison! Explore the halls, admire the splendid murals and learn about one of Rome’s most famous landmarks. From the top, you will see jaw dropping views of the Eternal City. The ticket includes priority entrance and a headset, so that you can always hear the guide.

from € 49,00

Castel Sant’Angelo: Fast Track

Castel Sant'Angelo has been used for many different purposes over the centuries. It was built as a Mausoleum, providing a final resting place for Emperor Hadrian and his family. After that, it has been a prison and defense fortress. Today it is a museum. Atop Castel Sant'Angelo is a statue of the Archangel Michael. Skip the queue by buying your tickets online in advance. The Angel Bridge connects the castle across the Tiber with the other side of Rome.

from € 17,50